Africa in The Twentieth Century
Independent Movements in Africa
| GRADE LEVEL | THEME | TOPIC | DURATION |
| 12 | WORLD HISTORY | AFRICA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY | x LESSONS |
Africa in The Twentieth Century |
African nationalism arose in response to the suffering and exploitation of Africans under colonial rule. Most of what was produced in Africa was shipped to Europe to help expand agricultural markets there. African self-worth and pride was thereby dealt a severe blow. The rise of African nationalism after the Second World War led to various independence struggles to end foreign domination and establish self-rule. The fifth Pan-African Congress held in Manchester (England) in 1945, shortly after WWII, exposed African scholars to ideas and strategies for obtaining independence. The theme of the congress was to bring an end to colonial rule and to promote political independence. Kwame Nkrumah from the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and Jomo Kenyatta, both of whom were present at the congress, returned to Africa, determined to set things in motion in their own countries and to achieve self rule.
The Pan African Congress in Manchester, 1945. Independent movements in Africa shaped the continent’s history. Different countries with different colonial rulers responded with alternate forms of resistance. For this reason, countries colonised by Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal, each led different independence struggles. This section shows these differences by describing one example of resistance against each of these imperial powers. It also gives examples of how different regions in Africa moved towards independence. British Colonies In British colonies the first independence movement was in the Gold Coast in West Africa (later Ghana). In 1946 Britain revised the Gold Coast constitution to establish an African majority in the Legislative Council. Local Chiefs nominated these representatives. Excluded was the small but significant grouping of educated Africans, who were determined to win more than a token say in government. In 1947 businessmen and lawyers formed the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC). They demanded that the 1946 constitution be changed to increase the number of elected African members of parliament. Kwame Nkrumah, a teacher from the south of the country, became new party secretary. In 1948 an event occurred in Accra that spurred on the progress of independence. Police fired on African ex-servicemen protesting against inadequate pensions and the high cost of living. The government suspected the UGCC of instigating the rebellion. Nkrumah and other party members were jailed. Nonetheless the government did review the constitution. The effectiveness of mass protests inspired Nkrumah, after being released, to found his own party, the Convention People's Party (CPP). He called for a campaign of 'Positive Action'. This led to protests and strikes throughout the country. The campaign was successful but he was re-arrested as a revolutionary. The constitution was further revised and elected Africans became the majority in the Legislative Council. This strong African voice pressed for parliamentary elections to be held. This was granted and an election was held in 1951. The CPP won the election with an overwhelming majority and Nkrumah was released from prison. Nkrumah spent almost three years negotiating with the Governor, Arden Clarke, for a new constitution that would bring full democracy to the people of Ghana. The CCP won the elections of 1954 and Nkrumah became Prime Minister. Gold Coast won its independence in March 1957, and became the new state of Ghana with Nkrumah as President.French Colonies The French followed a policy of assimilation into the French society. This meant that citizens of the colonies were also considered to be citizens of France. France also followed a policy of direct rule, with French officials. France offered countries the choice between full independence, self-governing states within the commonwealth or remaining under France as colonies. Initially most chose self-governance, but within a few years they moved towards independence. It was only in Algeria that France faced problems and a prolonged war.
In 1958 West and Equatorial Africa were given a choice between keeping links
with France or opting for full independence. Guinea voted for the latter
and immediately gained independence. She had survived economic sanctions
from France through support from the newly independent Ghana as well
as the Soviet Union. In 1960, thirteen French African territories became
independent. Belgian Colony The Belgian territories were initially owned by the Belgian King rather than by the government. After a period of cruel and inefficient administration, they were taken over by the Belgian government. Congo’s struggle for freedom was unlike anywhere else in Africa. Independence of the colony was not raised in Belgium until 1956. Belgium tried to keep the Congolese people isolated from the ideas of independence struggles that were sweeping the rest of the continent. The Belgian authorities forbade political organisations and prevented exposure of Africanist ideas by not allowing independent African newspapers in the colony until 1957. Treatment of the local population was brutal. Representation of the local people in any form was virtually nil and even jobs for them in the civil service were limited to the most basic ones. This began with local government elections being allowed in late 1957 and 1958 which opened the gates for a African political activity. The most prominent of these was the Bakongo Political Party (ABAKO) of the Bakongo tribe under Joseph Kasavubu but only the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), founded by Patrice Lumumba, represented efforts to create a national political party. Lumumba was inspired by the All-African Peoples’ Congress, which he had attended in independent Ghana. The political rallies in the capital of Kinshasa quickly became to wild riots. Since political parties had been legalised in August 1959, the Belgians summoned the colony’s main political leaders to a 'Round Table Conference' in January 1960. Belgium agreed to hand over power within six months. Totally unprepared, political parties mushroomed to contest the elections of May 1960. With the final constitution still undecided, Lumumba emerged as Prime Minister with Kasavubu as President to head the coalition. Portuguese Colonies Portugal ruled her colonies as a fascist dictatorship. She depended on her African colonies of Guinea Bissau, Cape Verde, Angola and Mozambique for economic stability. The Portuguese government was therefore determined to hang on to them. Portugal therefore met resistance from her colonies with force, crushing all protests by violent means. Independence movements decided to fight back with a prolonged guerilla struggle following the strategy, employed by the smallest colonies of Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde. In Angola the main socialist liberation movement of Mouvement to popular de Libertaca de Angola (MPLA) was founded by in December 1956 by Agostino Neto with support from the urban working classes of Luanda and military supplies from the Soviet Union. In 1961, most of the MPLA leaders were in jail when a revolt erupted among peasants objecting to Portugal’s use of forced-labour. The Portuguese police and armed forces reacted by killing hundreds of Africans around Luanda. The uprising spread to North Angola with Holden Roberto’s Bakongo supporting Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola (FNLA). It was the start of a long and bitter struggle that only ended with Angolan independence in 1975. Jonas Savimbi led the right wing Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola (UNITA) movement whose members came mainly from Ovimbundu of South Eastern Angola. Unita received military backing from America to ensure an anti-communist government and also from South Africa to prevent a government sympathetic to the liberation struggle against the apartheid regime. South Africa was also very nervous that an MPLA government would support the South West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) movement fighting for independence from South Africa. UNITA’s focus was therefore more on struggle for power with the MPLA than with ending colonial rule, and even forged an alliance with Portugal. A revolution in Portugal changed all this. With the takeover of the country by a progressive government, a decision was taken to grant all the colonies independence. Angola found itself in a state of civil war as the South African army invaded Angola from Namibia to prevent the MPLA from coming to power. At the same time United States equipped the FNLA for an invasion from the North. Further help came from the Zairean army, Portuguese loyalists and right wing mercenaries hired to kill MPLA members. Neto responded by declaring in independence under the MPLA. He summoned the aid of 13 000 Soviet-equipped Cuban troops and was able fend off the South Africans and the FNLA. By early 976 UNITA was forced to retreat to its bases in the South East Moxico province. Angola became united and independent under an MPLA government. For more information on the history of Independent countries in Africa. http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/special-chrono/colonial-independence2.htm - Lesson Outcome: Learners will be expected to synthesise information about the past to develop, sustain and defend an independent line of historical argument. They will be expected to communicate and present information accurately in writing and verbally.
To answer these questions see additional information and resources below
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Activity 4